- THEORETICAL GRAMMAR AS A BRUNCH OF LINGUISTICS
- SYSTEMIC CONCEPTION OF LANGUAGE
- The distinction between language and speech
- Discrimination of Language and Speech
- Language Units and Speech Units
- Systemic Relations in Language
- MORPHOLOGY MORPHEMIC STRUCTURE OF THE WORD
- Traditional Classification of Morphemes
- Allo-emic Classification of Morphemes
- Contrastive Non-contrastive Complimentary
- Degree of self-dependence Formal G rammatical presentation alternations
- CATEGORIAL STRUCTURE OF THE WORD
- GRAMMATICAL CLASSES OF WORDS
учебник_правка. Theoretical grammar as a brunch of linguistics
 Скачать 1.44 Mb.
|
|
СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
ВВЕДЕНИЕ В настоящее время особую актуальность приобретает проблема развития у студентов способности к творческой деятельности и умению самостоятельно ориентироваться в непрерывно возрастающем потоке информации. Курс теоретической грамматики способствует решению этой проблемы. Роль и местоданного курса в профессиональной подготовке выпускника обусловлено логической последовательностью изучения теоретических курсов. Курс теоретической грамматики тесно связан и опирается на ранее изученные дисциплины. В системе языковых дисциплин по подготовке преподавателей иностранного языка теоретическая грамматика вместе с теоретической фонетикой, лексикологией и стилистикой составляют единый комплекс теоретических знаний по изучаемому языку. Для будущих преподавателей иностранного языка необходима постановка профессионального лингвистического мировоззрения, то есть осмысление языка как явления действительности, как учебного предмета и как сферы профессиональной деятельности; усвоение лингвистической терминологии, современных лингвистических концепций и методов работы с языком. Причиной введения курса теоретической грамматики является то, что он углубляет общеязыковедческую подготовку выпускников, развивает их исследовательские навыки, расширяет профессиональный кругозор и открывает возможность по окончании вуза самостоятельно повышать свою профессиональную подготовку, следить за новейшими достижениями в науке и творчески применять их в практической работе. Данное пособие построено в соответствии с требованиями Государственного образовательного стандарта для специальности 033200 – «Иностранный язык». Изучение дисциплины имеет целью: – овладение содержанием дисциплины «Теоретическая грамматика английского языка»; – получение систематизированных сведений о грамматическом строе английского языка; – развитие у студента способности к творческой деятельности и умению самостоятельно ориентироваться в непрерывно возрастающем потоке научной информации. Преподавание дисциплины предполагает решение следующихзадач: – вооружение студентов знанием системы языка и взаимодействия всех сторон его структуры; – выработка умения правильно различать признаки основных единиц языка и речи; – развитие у студентов умения критически оценивать наиболее распространенные классификации этих единиц и современные направления в грамматической теории; – обучение студентов современным методам лингвистического анализа; – знакомство студентов с достижениями отечественной грамматической теории; – развитие умения анализировать противоречивые лингвистические концепции и формулировать самостоятельный подход к той или иной лингвистической проблеме. В результате изучения данной дисциплины студент должен знать: – теоретические основы, методологию и методику теоретической грамматики на базе современных достижений лингвистики; – базовые понятия теоретической грамматики; – основные направления развития грамматической теории и основные концепции различных лингвистических школ; – особенности анализа различных грамматических явлений с помощью традиционных и современных лингвистических методов. Полученные знания студент может использовать для – проведения анализа различных грамматических явлений с целью извлечения наиболее полной информации об их грамматическом значении и функциях; – выбора наиболее оптимальной методики анализа. В процессе изучения дисциплины студент должен приобрести следующие умения: – владение различными приемами анализа; – умение поставить исследовательскую задачу и найти пути ее решения; – доказательное изложение своей позиции. Курс «Теоретическая грамматика английского языка» включает 3 раздела. Раздел I. Введение. Раздел П. Морфология. Раздел Ш. Синтаксис. Особенностью изучения I раздела является обзорное ознакомление с грамматическим строем английского языка и методами его описания. Особенностью изучения П раздела является освоение основных концепций частей речи и их грамматических категорий. Особенностью изучения Ш раздела является знакомство с основными единицами синтаксического уровня и критическое осмысление основных концепций, выдвигаемых различными лингвистическими школами. THEORETICAL GRAMMAR AS A BRUNCH OF LINGUISTICS Language is as a system of elements that have no value without each other. They depend on each other, they exist only in a system, and they are nothing without a system. Thus, any language incorporates three constituent parts. They are the phonological system, the lexical system, and the grammatical system (Fig. 1).  Fig. 1 The grammatical system consists of morphology and syntax (Fig. 2). Morphology deals with the internal structure of words, peculiarities of their grammatical categories and their semantics while traditional syntax deals with the rules governing combination of words in sentences (and texts in modern linguistics).            Fig. 2 SYSTEMIC CONCEPTION OF LANGUAGE Modern linguistics is essentially based on the systemic conception of language. System in general is defined as a structured set of elements related to one another by a common function. The interpretation of language as a system develops a number of notions, namely:
The distinction between language and speech was made by Ferdinand de Saussure. This is the fundamental principle of linguistics. Language is a system of means of expression. It is a collective body of knowledge, a set of basic elements, but these elements can form a great variety of combinations. In fact the number of these combinations is endless. The system of language includes the body of material units sounds, morphemes, words, word-groups, and a set of regularities or “rules” of the use of these units. Speech is a manifestation of the system of language in the process of communication. Speech comprises both the act of producing utterances and the utterances themselves, i.e. the text made up of lingual units of various status. Speech is closely connected with language, as it is the result of using the language, the result of a definite act of speaking (Fig. 3).     Fig. 3 Speech is individual, personal while language is common for all individuals (Table 1). Table 1 Discrimination of Language and Speech
Language is a structural system. Structure means hierarchical layering of parts in constituting the whole. In the structure of language there are six main structural levels (Fig. 4). Hierarchy of Language Levels Level of topicalisation  Proposemic level Denotemic level Lexemic level Morphemic level Phonemic level Fig. 4 The levels are represented by the corresponding level units. The phonological level is the lowest level. The phonological level unit is the phoneme. It is a distinctive unit (bag – back). The morphological level unit is the morpheme – the lowest meaningful unit (teach – teacher). The third level is lexemic. Its differential unit is the word, the main naming unit of language (I, here, nothing). The fourth level is denotemic, its constituent unit is denoteme, the word-group – the dependent syntactic unit (you and me). The fifth level is proposemic. It is built up by sentences, main communicative units. As a sign, the sentence fulfils two functions – nominative and predicative . The sixth level is the level of topicalization, or the supersyntactical level, its constituent element is the “dicteme” (“utterance”). It fulfils four main functions: the functions of nomination, predication, topicalization, and stylization. Language is opposed to speech and accordingly language units are opposed to speech units (Table 2). Table 2 Language Units and Speech Units
A linguistic unit can enter into relations of two different kinds: paradigmatic relations and syntagmatic relations (Fig. 5). It enters into paradigmatic relations with all the units that can also occur in the same environment. Paradigmatic relations are relations based on the principles of similarity. They exist between the units that can substitute one another. According to different principles of similarity paradigmatic relations can be of three types: semantic, formal and functional.
Paradigmatic relations are associated with the sphere of ‘language’. A linguistic unit enters into syntagmatic relations with other units of the same level it occurs with. Syntagmatic relations exist at every language level. They can be of three different types: coordinate, subordinate and predicative.
Syntagmatic relations are observed in utterances.            Semantic Formal Functional Coordinate Subordinate Predicative         Fig. 5 Therefore, paradigmatic relations are identified with ‘language’ while syntagmatic relations are identified with ‘speech’ (Table 3). Table 3 Systemic Relations in Language
MORPHOLOGY MORPHEMIC STRUCTURE OF THE WORD The word is the main unit of morphology. The word is the main expressive unit of human language which ensures the thought-forming function of the language. It is also the basic nominative unit of language with the help of which the naming function of language is realized. As any linguistic sign the word is a level unit. In the structure of language it belongs to the upper stage of the morphological level. It is a unit of the sphere of ‘language’ and it exists only through its speech actualization. One of the most characteristic features of the word is its indivisibility. Thus, the word is the nominative unit of language built up by morphemes and indivisible into smaller segments as regards its nominative function. The morphological system of language reveals its properties through the morphemic structure of words. So, it is but natural that one of the essential tasks of morphology is to study the morphemic structure of the word. Traditional Classification of Morphemes In traditional grammar the study of the morphemic structure of the word is based upon two criteria – positional and semantic (functional). The positional criterion presupposes the analysis of the location of the marginal morphemes in relation to the central ones (Fig. 7).  Fig. 7 The semantic or functional criterion involves the study of the correlative contribution of the morpheme to the general meaning of the word (Fig. 8, Fig. 9) .  Fig. 8  Fig. 9 Allo-emic Classification of Morphemes Descriptive Linguistics put forward the “allo-emic” theory. According to this theory, lingual units are described by means of two types of terms: “allo-terms” and “eme-terms” (Fig. 10). Lingual units Allo-terms Eme-terms   Fig. 10 Eme-terms denote the generalized invariant units of language characterized by a certain functional status, e.g., phonemes, morphemes, lexemes, phrasemes, etc. Allo-terms denote the concrete manifestations or variants of the eme-units. Typical examples of allo-units are allophones and allomorphs. The allo-emic identification of lingual elements is the basis for the so-called “distributional analysis”. In the distributional analysis three main types of distribution are discriminated: contrastive distribution, non-contrastive distribution, and complementary distribution (Fig. 11). Types of Distribution    Contrastive Non-contrastive Complimentary distribution distribution distribution
 different morphemes free variants allomorphs Fig. 11 The morphs are in contrastive distribution if their environments are identical and their meanings are different, such morphs constitute different morphemes. The morphs are in non-contrastive distribution if their environments and meanings are identical; such morphs constitute “'free variants” of the same morpheme. The morphs are in complementary if their environments are different and their meanings are identical; such morphs are termed “allo-morphs”. There exist five criteria of classifying morphemes (Fig. 12). According to the classification suggested by Descriptive Linguistics there are the following “distributional morpheme types”. On the basis of the degree of self-dependence, “free” morphemes and “bound” morphemes are distinguished. Bound morphemes cannot form words by themselves, they are identified only as component segmental parts of words (Fig. 13). Degree of self-dependence  Formal Grammatical presentation alternations Linear characteristics Segmental relation Fig. 12  Fig. 13 On the basis of formal presentation,“overt” morphemes and “covert” morphemes are distinguished (Fig. 14). Overt morphemes are explicit morphemes building up words. The covert morpheme is identified as a contrastive absence of morpheme expressing a certain function. The notion of covert morpheme coincides with the notion of zero morpheme.  Fig. 14 On the basis of grammatical alternation, “additive” morphemes and “replacive” morphemes are distinguished. Additive morphemes are outer grammatical suffixes. The root phonemes of grammatical interchange are considered as replacive morphemes, since they replace one another in the paradigmatic forms (Fig. 15).  Fig. 15 On the basis of linear characteristic, “continuous” morphemes and "discontinuous" morphemes are distinguished (Fig. 16). The discontinuous morpheme is a two-element grammatical unit which is identified in the analytical grammatical form comprising an auxiliary word and a grammatical suffix. The continuous morpheme is a common uninterruptedly expressed grammatical unit.  Fig. 16 On the basis of segmental relation, “segmental” morphemes and “supra-segmental” morphemes are distinguished (Fig. 17). Supra-segmental morphemes are intonation contours, accents, pauses.  Fig. 17 CATEGORIAL STRUCTURE OF THE WORD The word combines in its semantic structure two meanings – lexical and grammatical. Lexical meaning is the individual meaning of the word. Grammatical meaning is the meaning of the whole class or a subclass. Thus, categorial grammatical meanings are the most general meanings rendered by language and expressed by systemic correlations of word-forms. The grammatical meaning may be of several types (Fig. 18). It may be explicit and implicit. The implicit grammatical meaning is not expressed formally. The explicit grammatical meaning is always marked morphologically – it has its marker. The implicit grammatical meaning may be of two types – general and dependent. The general grammatical meaning is the meaning of the whole word-class, of a part of speech. The dependent grammatical meaning is the meaning of a subclass within the same part of speech.       Fig. 18 Grammatical categories are made up by the unity of identical grammatical meanings that have the same form. Thus, the grammatical category is a system of expressing a generalized grammatical meaning by means of paradigmatic correlation of grammatical forms. We may define grammatical categories as references of the corresponding objective categories. For example, the objective category of time finds its representation in the grammatical category of tense, the objective category of quantity finds its representation in the grammatical category of number. Those grammatical categories that have references in the objective reality are called referential grammatical categories. H  owever, not all of the grammatical categories have references in the objective reality. Such categories correlate only with conceptual matters. They are called significational categories. To this type belong the categories of mood and degree (Fig. 19).    Fig. 19 The ordered set of grammatical forms expressing a categorial function constitutes a paradigm. Means of realization of grammatical categories may be synthetical and analytical (Fig. 20). Grammatical means for building up member-forms of categorial oppositions  Synthetical Analytical means means Fig. 20 Accordingly, the grammatical forms themselves are classed into synthetical and analytical, too (Fig. 21). Grammatical forms Synthetical forms Analytical forms e.g. will do, of the table, more convenient     Inflextional forms Suppletive forms e.g. be – is, go – went, I – me, good – better   Inner inflextional forms e.g. man – men, sing – sang – sung Outer inflextional forms e.g. boy – boys Fig. 21 Synthetical grammatical forms are realised by the inner morphemic composition of the word. Analytical grammatical forms are built up by a combination of at least two words, one of which is a grammatical auxiliary (word-morpheme), and the other, a word of “substantial” meaning. Synthetical grammatical forms are based on inner inflexion, outer inflexion, and suppletivity; hence, the forms are referred to as inner-inflexional, outer-inflexional, and suppletive. Any grammatical category must be represented by at least two grammatical forms. The relation between two grammatical forms differing in meaning and external signs is called opposition. All grammatical categories find their realization through oppositions. There exist qualitative and quantitative types of oppositions (Fig. 22). By the number of members contrasted, oppositions are divided into binary and more than binary. There are three main types of qualitatively different oppositions: “privative”, “gradual”, “equipollent”. The privative binary opposition is formed by a contrastive pair of members in which one member is characterized by the presence of a certain feature called the “mark”, while the other member is characterized by the absence of this differential feature (Fig. 23). The gradual opposition is formed by the degree of the presentation of one and the same feature of the opposition members. The equipollent opposition is formed by a contrastive group of members which are distinguished not by the presence or absence of a certain feature, but by a contrastive pair or group in which the members are distinguished by different positive (differential) features. Fig. 22 Privative e.g. serve – served Gradual e.g. strong – stronger – the strongest Equipollent e.g. is – am – are – was – were – been Qualitative Quantitative Types of opposition    Binary e.g. serve – served Ternary e.g. strong – stronger – strongest Quaternary, etc. e.g. is – am – are – was         Fig. 23 In the process of communication grammatical categories may undergo the processes of oppositional reduction. Oppositional reduction is the usage of one member of an opposition in the position of the counter-member. From the functional point of view there exist two types of oppositional reduction: neutralization of the categorial opposition and its transposition (Fig. 24). Neutralization (the weak member replaces the strong one; stylistically neutral)  Oppositional Reduction  Transposition (the strong member replaces the weak one; stylistically coloured)   e.g.Man conquers nature. e.g.She is always leaving things around. (man – people) (leaves – is leaving) Fig. 24 In case of neutralization one member of the opposition becomes fully identified with its counterpart. In other words, neutralization is the reduction of the opposition to one of its members. Transposition takes place when one member of the opposition placed in the contextual conditions uncommon for it begins to fulfil two functions – its own and the function of its counterpart. Transposition is the use of a linguistic unit in an unusual environment or in the function that is not characteristic of it. As a result, transposition is always accompanied by different stylistic effects. GRAMMATICAL CLASSES OF WORDS The parts of speech are classes of words. All the members of these classes have certain characteristics in common which distinguish them from the members of other classes. All the words of the English language are grouped into different types of classes. The problem of word classification into parts of speech remains one of the most controversial problems in modern linguistics. Parts of speech are differentiated either by a number of criteria, or by a single criterion. There are four approaches to the problem:
The classical parts of speech theory goes back to ancient times. It is based on Latin grammar. According to the Latin classification of the parts of speech all words were divided into declinable and indeclinable parts of speech. Declinable words included nouns, pronouns, verbs and participles, indeclinable words – adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections. This classification is quite successful for Latin or other languages with developed morphology and synthetic paradigms but it cannot be applied to the English language because the principle of declinability/indeclinability is not relevant for analytical languages. A new approach to the problem was introduced in the XIX century by Henry Sweet. This approach may be defined as functional. singled out nominative units and particles. To nominative parts of speech belonged noun-words (noun, noun-pronoun, noun-numeral, infinitive, gerund), adjective-words (adjective, adjective-pronoun, adjective-numeral, participles), verb (finite verb, verbals – gerund, infinitive, participles), while adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection belonged to the group of particles. However, though the criterion for classification was functional, Henry Sweet failed to break the tradition and classified words into those having morphological forms and lacking morphological forms, in other words, declinable and indeclinable (Fig. 25). |