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учебник_правка. Theoretical grammar as a brunch of linguistics
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COMPOSITE SENTENCEThe composite sentence is formed by two or more predicative lines, i.e. it consists of two or more clauses. The composite sentence expresses a complicated act of thought, i.e. an act of mental activity which falls into two or more intellectual efforts closely combined with one another. Composite sentences display two principal types of construction: hypotaxis (subordination) and parataxis (coordination) (Fig. 142).  Fig. 142 Within a composite sentence clauses may be joined by means of coordination or subordination, thus forming a compound or a complex sentence respectively (Fig. 143). Coordination is a way of linking grammatical elements to make them equal in rank. Subordination is a way of linking grammatical elements that makes one of them dependent upon the other (or they are mutually dependent). .  Fig. 143 The means of combining clauses into a polypredicative sentence are divided into syndetic, i. e. conjunctional, and asyndetic, i. e. non-conjunctional (Fig. 144). Fig. 144 COMPOUND SENTENCEThe compound sentence is a composite sentence built on the principle of coordination. Coordination can be expressed either syndetically or asyndetically. A compound sentence consists of two or more clauses of equal rank which form one syntactical whole in meaning and intonation. Clauses that are parts of a compound sentence are called coordinate, as they are joined by coordination. The main semantic feature of the compound sentence is that it follows the flow of thought; thus the content of each successive clause is related to the previous one. Hence come two syntactical features of the compound sentence which distinguish it from the complex sentence: 1) the opening clause mostly plays the leading role, and each successive clause is joined to the previous clause; 2) the clauses are sequentially fixed. Thus a coordinate clause cannot change place with the previous one without changing or distorting the meaning of the whole sentence From the point of view of the relationship between coordinate clauses four kinds of coordinate connection are distinguished: copulative, adversative, disjunctive and causative-consecutive (Fig. 145). The type of connection is expressed not only by means of coordinating connectives, but also by the general meaning of clauses conveyed by their lexical and grammatical content. Copulative coordination implies that the information conveyed by coordinate clauses is in some way similar. The connectors are: the conjunctions and, nor, neither... nor, not only... but (also), as well as, and the conjunctive adverbs then, moreover, besides. Adversative coordination joins clauses containing opposition, contradiction or contrast. Adversative connectors are: the conjunctions but, while, whereas, the conjunctive adverbs however, yet, still, nevertheless, and the conjunctive particle only. Adversative coordination may also be realized asyndetically. Disjunctive coordination implies a choice between two mutually exclusive alternatives. The disjunctive conjunctions are or, either... or, the conjunctive adverbs are else (or else), otherwise. Causative-consecutive coordination joins clauses connected in such a way that one of them contains a reason and the other – a consequence. The second clause may contain either the reason or the result of the event conveyed by the previous clause. The only causative coordinating conjunction is for.  Fig. 145 COMPLEX SENTENCEThe complex sentence is a polypredicative construction built up on the principle of subordination. The complex sentence of minimal composition includes two clauses — a principal one and a subordinate one.The subordinate clause is joined to the principal clause either by a subordinating connector (subordinator), or, with some types of clauses, asyndetically.Subordination is marked by some formal signals (Fig. 146). These formal signs may be conjunctions or connectives.  Fig. 146 Conjunctions are specialized formal devices (connectors) the only function of which is to link clauses and express the relation between them. They usually stand at the beginning of a subordinate clause. The only exception to this rule is the complex sentence with a concessive clause, where owing to partial inversion the conjunction may come second, after the word which is the focus of concessive meaning. Connectives combine two functions – that of linking clauses and that of a part in the subordinate clause. Connectives are subdivided into conjunctive words (conjunctive subordinating pronouns and adverbs), which are used to join nominal clauses and relative words (pronouns and adverbs), used to join attributive clauses (Fig. 147). Some conjunctive and relative words coincide in form, and it is therefore necessary to give some criterion according to which the two types can be distinguished. The difference between conjunctive words and relative words lies in their role within the sentence or clause. In the case of conjunctive words the choice is determined by the structure and meaning of the subordinate clause itself. In the case of relative words the choice depends on the antecedent in the main clause. There exist two different bases of classifying subordinate clauses: the first is functional, the second is categorical.In accord with the functional principle,subordinate clauses are to be classed on the analogy of the positional parts of the simple sentence. Subordinate clauses function as different parts of the sentence (subject, predicative, object, apposition, attribute, adverbial modifier).Traditionally these numerous types of clauses are arranged in three groups: nominal clauses (that is, clauses functioning as nouns in various syntactical positions), attributive clauses, and adverbial clauses (Fig. 148).  Fig. 147 All nominal clauses have a function approximating to that of a noun or a nominal phrase. They may fulfill the function of a basic part of the main clause: a subject clause functions as subject of the main clause which has no subject of its own, a predicative clause functions as predicative to the link verb within the main clause; an object clause refers to verbs in different forms and functions, to adjectives, statives and occasionally to nouns, and may be obligatory or optional (Fig. 149). All nominal clauses are very closely connected with the main clause, and if such a clause is removed, both the structure and meaning of the sentence are changed or become ungrammatical.  Fig. 148  Fig. 149 Attributive clauses function as modifiers to a word of nominal character, which is generally called the antecedent. Usually an attributive clause immediately follows its antecedent, although some types may occasionally be distant. An attributive clause may be introduced by connectives – relative pronouns (who, whose, whom, what, which, that, as), or relative adverbs (when, where, whence, wherein). The choice of relative word depends on the categorical meaning of the antecedent. Attributive clauses fall into two types, depending on the degree of connection and the relation they bear to the antecedent (Fig. 150).  Fig. 150 Attributive limiting clauses are very closely connected with the antecedent and cannot be removed from the sentence, because the information contained in the attributive clause singles out, determines, or particularizes the person, thing, idea, etc., expressed by the antecedent. Therefore the meaning of the main clause is not complete or is altogether changed without the subordinate clause. The lack of completeness is manifested by some deictic elements (determinants) before the antecedent (mainly articles, demonstrative pronouns, or words with a demonstrative or particularizing meaning, such as the same, the only, the best). The presence of such elements is justified only if the attributive clause is following. In these sentences the main part taken separately is not clear because of the article which has a classifying or a demonstrative force and therefore requires some explanation in the form of an attributive clause or some context to make explicit what kind of place the library was, what fact was meant. Attributive descriptive clauses are characterized by a looser connection with the main clause. Usually they contain additional information about the antecedent and may be left out without any serious change in the meaning of the main clause. Attributive descriptive clauses are generally comma off. They are joined by the same connectives as limiting clauses, except the relative pronoun that, and asyndetic connection hardly ever occurs. The additional descriptive character of the attributive clause is determined by the fact that the antecedent denotes a definite person, place, thing, notion, etc. It is either specified by a limiting attribute, or is expressed by a proper name, or else denotes a unique notion (or one specified by the situation). An attributive descriptive clause referring to a whole clause, sentence, series of sentences, or even a whole story is called a continuative (or sentential) attributive clause. It is generally introduced by the connective which, occasionally by that. Adverbial clauses are usually classified according to their meaning, that is, according to the relation they bear to the main clause. They differ from nominal and attributive clauses in that they are introduced by conjunctions with a more distinct meaning. Some types of adverbial clauses may be introduced by at least a dozen different conjunctions (as for instance adverbial clauses of time). On the other hand, many of the conjunctions are used to introduce more than one kind of clause (as, since, that, when, now that). In some cases the meanings and functions of the conjunction are so numerous that it is really difficult to say what the basic meaning of the conjunction is, as its function depends on the meaning of the clauses and their relationship. Conditional clauses may be joined asyndetically, though they have link-inversion in this case. Here the meaning and function of the clause can be inferred only from the meaning of the subordinate and the main clause. An adverbial clause may qualify the whole main clause, the verbal predicate or any verbal part, and also parts expressed by an adjective or adverb. Its position therefore varies: it may be initial, medial, or final – depending on the position of the part of the sentence it refers to and on the general structure of the main clause. According to their semantics several types of adverbial clause are distinguished (Fig. 151). Fig. 151 |
