учебник_правка. Theoretical grammar as a brunch of linguistics

SEMI-COMPOSITE SENTENCE

1. 
   Actional verbs – verbs that express the action performed by the subject, i.e. they present the subject as an active doer.
   
2. 
   Active voice indicates that the action is directed from the subject or issues from the subject, thus the subject denotes the doer (agent) of the action.
   
3. 
   Additive morphemes – outer grammatical suffixes.
   
4. 
   Addressing enclosure (address) – a substantive modifier of the destination of the sentence and hence, from its angle, a modifier of the sentence as a whole.
   
5. 
   Adverb – a word denoting circumstances or characteristics which attend or modify an action, state, or quality. It may also intensify a quality or characteristics.
   
6. 
   Adverbial modifier (or the adverbial) – a secondary part of the sentence which modifies another part of the sentence; a quality-modifier (in a broad sense) of a processual part or the whole of the sentence (as expressing an integral process inherent in the reflected event).
   
7. 
   Adversative coordination joins clauses containing opposition, contradiction or contrast.
   
8. 
   Adjunct – 1. a qualifying word, phrase, etc., depending on a particular member of a sentence: 2. a secondary word in a junction (0. Jespersen).
   
9. 
   Agreement takes place when the subordinate word assumes a form similar to that of the word to which it is subordinate.
   
10. 
    Allomorph – a concrete manifestation of a morpheme, a variant, an alternative of a morpheme.
    
11. 
    Allo-term – a variant language unit actualized in a concrete speech string.
    
12. 
    Analitical grammatical forms – forms that are built up by a combination of at least two words, one of which is a grammatical auxiliary (word-morpheme), and the other – a word of “substantial” meaning.
    
13. 
    Apposition – a part of the sentence expressed by a noun or nominal phrase and referring to another noun or nominal phrase (the headword), or sometimes to a clause. The apposition may give another designation to, or description of the person or non-person, or else put it in a certain class of persons or non-persons.
    
14. 
    Aspect – a linguistic representation of the objective category of manner of action.
    
15. 
    Aspective grammatical meanings – differential grammatical meanings describing the inner character of the verbal process in terms of its beginning, duration, iteration, termination, or its instantaneous, supercompleted, undercompleted character, etc.
    
16. 
    Aspective semantics – semantics describing the inner characteristics of the verbal process; it can be expressed lexically or grammatically.
    
17. 
    Attribute – a secondary part of the sentence which characterizes person or non-person expressed by the headword either qualitatively, quantitatively, or from the point of view of situation; a quality-modifier of a substantive part.
    
18. 
    Auxiliary verbs – verbs that constitute grammatical elements of the categorial forms of the verb.
    
19. 
    Bicomplementive verbs – verbs taking two complements.
    
20. 
    Binary opposition – an opposition consisting of two counter-members.
    
21. 
    Bound morpheme – a morpheme that cannot form a word by itself.
    
22. 
    Case – a nounal category showing the relation of the referent to some other referent.
    
23. 
    Causative-consecutive coordination joins clauses connected in such a way that one of them contains a reason and the other – a consequence.
    
24. 
    Common gender nouns – nouns able to actualize either masculine or feminine gender properties of the referent depending on the context.
    
25. 
    Complementary distribution – relation of formally different morphs having the same function in different environments.
    
26. 
    Complementive verb – a verb taking an obligatory adjunct, a verb having an obligatory valency.
    
27. 
    Complex sentence – a sentence with a minimal composition of two clauses, one is the basic element, whereas the other is a constituent or part of the first.
    
28. 
    Composite sentence – a sentence consisting of two or more clauses.
    
29. 
    Compound sentence – a sentence consisting of two or more clauses of equal rank which form one syntactical whole in meaning and intonation.
    
30. 
    Consecutive phrase – a phrase based on logical domination of one member over another.
    
31. 
    Continuous morpheme – an uninterrupted string of phonemes building up a morpheme.
    
32. 
    Contrastive distribution – relations of different morphs in the identical environment.
    
33. 
    Coordinative phrase – a phrase based on coordination and consisting of elements of equal rank.
    
34. 
    Coordination – syntagmatic relations of independence; a way of linking grammatical elements to make them equal in rank.
    
35. 
    Copulative coordination implies that the information conveyed by coordinate clauses is in some way similar.
    
36. 
    Covert morpheme – an implicit morpheme, i.e. a morpheme having no explicit representation in the actual expression.
    
37. 
    Cumulative phrase – a phrase whose elements are not equal in rank.
    
38. 
    Declarative sentence – a sentence that contains a statement which gives the reader or the listener some information about various events, activities or attitudes, thoughts and feelings.
    
39. 
    Dependent grammatical meaning – the meaning of a subclass within the same part of speech.
    
40. 
    Derivational – referring to the formation of language units.
    
41. 
    Derivational suffix – a suffix which may be followed by other suffixes (W.N. Francis).
    
42. 
    “Descriptive” plural – the plural form of the noun having a pronounced stylistic colouring due to the usage of the uncountable noun in the function of the countable noun.
    
43. 
    Diachronic – dealing with study of language changes over a period of time.
    
44. 
    Dicteme – an elementary topical unit fulfilling the functions of nomination, predication, topicalization, stylization (M. Blokh).
    
45. 
    Differential feature – distinctive feature of a categorial form.
    
46. 
    Direct object – an object that is joined to the verb “directly”, without a preposition.
    
47. 
    Discontinuous morpheme – a morpheme built up of an interrupted string of phonemes.
    
48. 
    Disjunctive coordination – coordination that implies a choice between two mutually exclusive alternatives.
    
49. 
    Distribution – the contextual environment of a language unit.
    
50. 
    Dominational phrase – a phrase based on the relationship of the modifier and the modified.
    
51. 
    Elliptical sentence – a sentence in which one or more word-forms in the principal positions are omitted.
    
52. 
    Eme-term – a generalized invariant language unit.
    
53. 
    Enclosure –
    
54. 
    Equipollent opposition – an opposition whose members have different positive categorial features.
    
55. 
    Equipotent phrase – a phrase based on logical succession of elements having an equal rank.
    
56. 
    “Evaluative” adjectives – adjectives that actually give some qualitative evaluation to the substance referent.
    
57. 
    Explicit grammatical meaning – grammatical meaning that is always marked morphologically – it has its marker.
    
58. 
    Extended sentence – a sentence that contains various optional elements (including attributes, certain kinds of prepositional objects and adverbial modifiers).
    
59. 
    Finite verb – a verb explicitly expressing predication on the basis of the categories of tense and mood, verb of complete predication.
    
60. 
    Finitude – a lexico-grammatical category that divides the verb into finite and non-finite forms.
    
61. 
    Formal criterion (form) provides for the exposition of the specific inflexional and derivational (word-building) features of all the lexemic subsets of a part of speech.
    
62. 
    Formative phrase – a phrase consisting both of notional and functional verbs.
    
63. 
    Free morphemes – morphemes that can build up words by themselves.
    
64. 
    Function – special purpose of a unit, its ability to serve a certain aim; sometimes equivalent to some abstract syntactic meaning.
    
65. 
    Functional criterion (function) – the syntactic role of words in the sentence typical of a part of speech.
    
66. 
    Functional part of speech – a part of speech having a partial nominative value.
    
67. 
    General grammatical meaning – the meaning of the whole word-class, of a part of speech.
    
68. 
    Genitive case – a term in grammar marking possession and analogous relations in the case system of Latin and other inflected languages.
    
69. 
    Gerund – the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb with those of the noun, serving as the verbal name of a process.
    
70. 
    Government – a kind of concord in which one term controls or selects the form of the partner.
    
71. 
    Gradual opposition – an opposition whose members are characterized by the expression of a certain degree of one and the same categorial feature.
    
72. 
    Grammatical categories – the most general notions reflecting the most general properties of phenomena; systems of expressing generalised grammatical meanings by means of paradigmatic correlation of grammatical forms.
    
73. 
    Grammatical form – a unity of form (i.e. material factor) and meaning (i.e. ideal factor).
    
74. 
    Grammatical meaning – the most general meanings rendered by language and expressed by systemic correlations of word-forms; the meaning of the whole class or a subclass.
    
75. 
    Grammatical system – the whole set of regularities determining the combination of naming means in the formation of utterances as the embodiment of thinking process.
    
76. 
    Hypotaxis – subordination.
    
77. 
    Imperative sentence – a sentence that expresses a command which conveys the desire of the speaker to make someone, generally the listener, perform an action.
    
78. 
    Impersonal uncomplementive verbs – verbs mostly expressing natural phenomena of the self-processual type, i. e. natural processes going on without a reference to a real subject.
    
79. 
    Implicit grammatical meaning – grammatical meaning that is not expressed formally.
    
80. 
    Indicative verbal forms – verbal forms expressing the categorial meanings of the indicative mood and describing the denoted action in terms of absolutive time.
    
81. 
    Infinitive – the non-finite form of the verb which combines the properties of the verb with those of the noun, serving as the verbal name of a process.
    
82. 
    Inflectional suffix – a suffix which must always come at the end of the morpheme groups to which they belong.
    
83. 
    Inner inflexion – phonemic (vowel) interchange.
    
84. 
    Interjectional enclosure – a speaker-bound emotional modifier of the sentence.
    
85. 
    Interrogative sentence – a sentence that contains a question.
    
86. 
    Intransitive verbs – verbs incapable of taking a direct object.
    
87. 
    Junction – relationship of two elements which is so close that they may be considered to be one composite name for what might in many cases just as well have been called by a single name (0. Jcspersen)
    
88. 
    Language proper – a collective body of knowledge, it is a set of basic elements.
    
89. 
    Lexeme – word taken as an invariant unity of form and meaning.
    
90. 
    Lexical meaning – the individual meaning of the word.
    
91. 
    Lexical morphemes – roots of words.
    
92. 
    Lexical system – the whole set of naming means of language, that is, words and stable word-groups.
    
93. 
    Limitive verb – a verb expressing a potential limit in the development of the denoted action.
    
94. 
    Link-verbs – verbs introducing the nominal part of the predicate.
    
95. 
    Modality – the way in which proposition is modified in lei ins of reality/non-reality (possibility. necessity, desire, obligation, belief, hope, hypothesis, etc.). It shows the relation of the nominative content to reality (M. Blokh).
    
96. 
    Monocomplementive verbs – verbs taking one object-complement.
    
97. 
    Mood – the category of the verb that expresses the attitude of the speaker or writer towards the content of the sentence, whether the speaker considers the action real, unreal, desirable, necessary, etc.
    
98. 
    Morph – a repeated segment of phonemic string; a combination of phonemes that has a meaning which cannot be subdivided into smaller meaningful units (W.N. Francis).
    
99. 
    Morpheme – the smallest meaningful part of a word expressing a generalized, significative meaning. It's a group of allomorphs that are semantically similar and in complementary distribution.
    
100. 
     Morphology – a brunch of grammar that deals with the internal structure of words, peculiarities of their grammatical categories and their semantics.
     
101. 
     Multitude plural – a type of oppositional reduction consisting in the use of the absolute plural with countable nouns in the singular form which concerns collective nouns.
     
102. 
     Neutralization – a type of oppositional reduction by which a neutralized language unit becomes fully functionally identified with its counter-member.
     
103. 
     Nominal sentences – those in which the principal part is expressed by a noun.
     
104. 
     Non-contraslive distribution – relations of different morphs having the same function in the identical environments.
     
105. 
     Non-limitive verb – verb not expressing a potential limit in the development of the denoted action.
     
106. 
     Notional verbs – verbs of full nominative value.
     
107. 
     Number – the linguistic representation of the objective category of quantity, the category that shows whether the action is performed by one or more than one persons or non-persons.
     
108. 
     Object – a secondary part of the sentence referring to some other part of the sentence completing, specifying, or restricting its meaning; a substance-modifier of a processual part (actional or statal).
     
109. 
     Objectivity – the ability of a verb to take an object of any kind.
     
110. 
     Objective verb – a verb taking an object of any kind (direct, indirect, prepositional).
     
111. 
     Obligatory relations – relations that are indispensable for the existence of the syntactic unit as such.
     
112. 
     Oblique verbal form – the form of a verb which expresses the categorial meanings of irreality.
     
113. 
     Opposition – correlation of categorial forms having a certain function.
     
114. 
     Oppositional reduction – the process of curtailing an opposition of categorial forms.
     
115. 
     Optional relations – relations that may or may not be actually represented in the syntactic unit.
     
116. 
     Outer inflexion – outer grammatical suffixation.
     
117. 
     Overt morpheme – an explicit morpheme, not zeroed.
     
118. 
     Paradigm – the ordered set of grammatical forms expressing a categorial function.
     
119. 
     Paradigmatic – based on the principles of similarity.
     
120. 
     Paradigmatic relations – relations that exist between elements of the system outside the strings where they co-occur.
     
121. 
     Parataxis – coordination.
     
122. 
     Parenthetical enclosure – a detached speaker-bound modifier of any sentence-part or the whole of the sentence.
     
123. 
     
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